Introduction : Knowledge commons and the road to medical commons -- The knowledge commons framework -- Leviathan in the commons : biomedical data and the state -- Centralization, fragmentation, and replication in the genomic data commons -- Genomic data commons -- Population biobanks' governance: a case study of knowledge commons -- The sentinel initiative as a knowledge commons -- Cancer : from a kingdom to a commons -- The greatest generational impact : the open neuroscience movement as an emerging knowledge commons --Better to give than to receive : an uncommon commons in synthetic-biology -- Governance of biomedical research commons to advance clinical translation : lessons from the mouse model community -- Constructing interdisciplinary collaboration : the oncofertility consortium as an emerging knowledge commons -- The application of user innovation and knowledge commons governance to mental health -- Challenges and opportunities in developing and sharing solutions by patients and caregivers : the story of a knowledge commons for the patient innovation project -- Chronic disease, new thinking and outlaw innovation : patients on the edge in the knowledge commons -- The North American Mitochondrial Disease Consortium : a developing knowledge commons -- The Consortium of Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Disease Researchers (CEGIR) : an emerging knowledge commons -- Conclusion : governing knowledge commons : an appraisal.